INSTITUTIONS+OF+GLOBAL+GOVERNANCE

STATE ACTORS -
State actors – make up the global community. States are the principle actors because the world is divided into these political communities. The aim of State actors is to uphold the national interest – security; social & economic prosperity; sovereignty; citizenship.

Sovereignty is being challenged by regional groupings, contested borders, issues & crises which require multilateral action. Security is no longer limited to border protection. States sovereignty is now limited by financial instability, human crises and environmental challenges Multilateral alliances can undermine sovereignty but also provide states with economic, military and cultural power.

INSTITUTIONS OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE TABLE
International institutions of global governance are central to cooperative action because they establish, manage & facilitate relations between states through their institutional processes, protocols & legal arrangements.

**UNITED NATIONS **
//-**keep peace** throughout-**develop friendly relations** between nations-work together to **eliminate poverty, disease** and **illiteracy**, to **stop environmental destruction** and to **encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms**-to be a centre for helping nations achieve these aims// || -trusteeship council-economic and social council-secretariat Majority of work carried out by the UN is done with little publicity. The UN initiates procedures and programmes to better the lives of suffering countries. || -general assembly resolutions are not binding; although they represent the will of the general community they cannot be enforced. -the structure of the organisation further complicates its successful working -no army -rulings made by the ICJ can be refused even is member-states accept the court’s jurisdiction Lacks authority Sec. Council P5 is not representative of the world ||
 * **AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ** || //The UN wants to //
 * **ROLES ** ||  ||
 * **MECHANISMS TO ACHIEVE AIMS ** || //The UN seeks to achieve its aims through: //
 * Use of numerous agencies:** -general assembly-security council-international court of justice
 * **EXAMPLES OF WORK ** || - **World Food Programme-**mandated by the UN to combat global hunger; in 2011 it aimed to provide more than 90 million people in 70 states with food assistance ||
 * **CRITICISMS ** || The security council veto allows the ‘big 5’ member states-China, America, Britain, Russia, France- to decide the direction and work of the entire organization. This means these 5 states may vote for certain things work which would be in there best interest rather than anyone else’s.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FOUNDATION
- Promote international monetary cooperation and exchange-rate stability - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Facilitate the balanced growth of international trade - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Provide resources (loans, bailouts, advice) to help members in balance of payment difficulties - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Assist with poverty reduction - Promote a healthy & stable global economy - With its near-global membership of 186 countries, the IMF is uniquely placed to help member governments take advantage of the opportunities—and manage the challenges—posed by globalization and economic development more generally. The IMF tracks global economic trends and performance, alerts its member countries when it sees problems on the horizon, provides a forum for policy dialogue, and passes on know-how to governments on how to tackle economic difficulties. || Policy advise to governments and central banks - Research, statistics, forecasts and analysis based on tracking of global, regional and individual economies and markets - Loans to help countries overcome economic difficulties - Concessional loans to help fight poverty in developing countries - Technical assistance and training to help countries improve the management of their economies. || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Surveillance: // - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF overseas the international monetary system and monitors the financials and economic policies of its members - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">It keeps track of economic developments on a national, regional and global basis, consulting regularly with member states and providing them with macroeconomic and financial policy advice Research, statistics, forecasts and analysis based on tracking of global, regional and individual economies and markets - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Policy advice to governments and centrals banks based on analysis/observation of economic trends and cross country experiences //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Technical Assistance: // - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF assists mainly low and middle income states in effectively managing their economies. It provides practical guidance and training on how to upgrade institutions and design appropriate macroeconomic, financial and structural policies //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Lending: // - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF provided loans to states that have trouble meeting their international payments and cannot otherwise find sufficient financing on affordable terms - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Provides concessional loans to low income states to help them develop their economies and reduce poverty || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">As a result of the global financial crisis and resulting sovereign debt crisis, there are many contemporary examples of IMF work. - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Greece - 2010 it approved a three year €30 billion loan, the largest single loan given by the organisation. - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Iceland - 2010 where the IMF approved a €22.5 billion loan as part of a joint package with the EU worth €85 billion. Iceland’s economy has improved with reduction in unemployment. Largely successful without using SAPs – Structural Adjustment Programs. - The Caribbean Regional Technical Assistance Centre in Bridgetown, Barbados provides technical assistance to 20 Caribbean island states in five areas; public finance management, tax/customs policy and administration, financial sector regulation, economic and financial statistics and financial programming - Bolivia - -Jordan || - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Critics suggest the IMF loan conditions are structured to further the interests of already economically powerful countries rather than to reduce poverty - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF is also accused by critics of a one size fits all approach, because it applies the same formula to different states, even though the problems might be quite different. Different states have different problems and cannot all be solved by one type of resolution - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The organisation entrenches the power of the developed world. Voting power in the IMF is broadly based on economic power - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF measures reduce economic sovereignty. It is argued that the IMF takes away the ability to decide national policy, instead, having to follow its economic dictates - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">SAPs do not take into account the environment and thus their impact on it is often devastating - Reduce Sovereignty- for States that require a bailout/loan they dictate what they need to do. (ie reduce public spending eg on education, pension ect.)(SAPs) - Wealthy states have more voting power – voting power is determined by the amount of money that each country pays into the IMF’s quota system. One dollar, one vote. The US is the largest shareholder with a quota of 18% & Germany, Japan, France, UK & US combined control about 38%. - Not open, they hide many decisions and work only with a few select central bankers and finance ministers - Companies over people’s needs - Do not protect the environment ||
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ** || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF aims to: //
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">ROLES ** || To help states reduce the risk of financial crisis
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">MECHANISMS TO ACHIEVE AIMS ** || //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The IMF seeks to achieve their aims through the provisions of: //
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">EXAMPLES OF WORK ** || - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In April 2011, the IMF advised the Australian Government to establish a sovereign wealth fund from the revenue generated by higher commodity prices
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">CRITICISMS ** || - <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In return for financial assistance, member-states must initiate Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). These are macro-economic reforms that states are obliged to carry out. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), initiated by the IMF, can impact severely on the poor and do more damage than good.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION
The World Trade Organisation's key aims can be summarized into three main points: to liberalise world trade, to promote economic growth and stability, and to lay down the rules for world trade || The WTO creates and embodies the legal ground rules for global trade among member nations and therefore offers a system for international commerce. It is an organization for trade opening. It is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements. It is a place for them to settle trade disputes. It operates a system of trade rules. Essentially, the WTO is a place where member governments try to sort out the trade problems they face with each other. || -The Doha was introduced to boost the income of developing states of around $60 Billion but intact failed as a result of developed states seeking to protect their own economies and refusing to relinquish subsidies to farmers.
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ** || The WTO aims to create economic peace and stability in the world through a multilateral system based on consenting member states (approximately 140 members currently) that have ratified the rules of the WTO in their individual countries as well.
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">ROLES ** || The purpose of the WTO is to ensure that global trade commences smoothly, freely and predictably.
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">MECHANISMS TO ACHIEVE AIMS ** || These aims are achieved through four main functions or roles: it provides a forum for negotiation and the exchange of information, it overseas the treaty commitments of members, it provides exceptions from the constraints to allow some individual flexibility in international trade agreements and it offers a dispute settlement mechanism which aims to resolve trade disputes between states. ||
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">EXAMPLES OF WORK ** || Trade Negotiations: Changes to the rules of trade require the agreement of all WTO members, who must reach consensus through rounds of negotiations. The most recent round, the Doha development agenda which began in 2001. (The Doha Round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim is to achieve major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules.)

- Implementation and monitoring: Various WTO councils and committees seek to ensure that WTO agreements are being properly implemented. All WTO members undergo periodic scrutiny of their trading policies and practices. - Dispute settlement: WTO members bring disputes to the WTO if they think their rights under trade agreements are being infringed. Settling disputes is the responsibility of the dispute settlement body. - In 2007, New Zealand complained to the WTO over restrictions placed on it by Australia on the importation of apples into the state. With investigation by the WTO Australia's appeal against the decision was lost the case and started to issue import permits for New Zealand apples from August 2011.

- Building trade capacity: The WTO aims to help developing countries build their trade capacity and allows them a longer time to implement trade agreements. Hundreds of training courses are organised each year for officials from developing countries. || - The World Trade Organisation's trade liberalisation ignores cultural and social factors, meaning it reduces cultural diversity. - The structure of the WTO and its employee demographic leads to developed states having priority and advantage over less developed states, making the organisation seem undemocratic. - It is an opinion of some that the concerns of the poorest states are second to maintaining unfair trade rules, highlighting the argument that the WTO is motivated by corporate concerns of development. - A criticism from environmentalists is that the WTO has not linked environmental protection to trade liberalisation. - The World Trade Organisation is criticised by labour organisations for refusing to insist on labour safeguards in trade negotiations, arguing that they are counter to trade liberalisation ie.a movement toward free trade - WTO is motivated by corporate concerns over development. The failure of the Doha highlights the argument that the poorest states are secondary to maintaining unfair trade rules that favour capitalism. ||
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">CRITICISMS ** || - The WTO reduces state sovereignty.

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT
- Ensure the worst perpetrators are held accountable for their crimes - Serve as a court of last resort that can investigate, prosecute and punish the perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. - Assist national judiciaries in investigating and prosecuting the worst perpetrators, allowing states to be the first to investigate and prosecute. - Help promote international peace and security by deterring future would-be perpetrators. || -To compliment national courts and exercise jurisdiction when states are unwilling or unable to prosecute individuals. -To exercise its authority over crimes committed within the boundaries of any state party to the Rome Statue. __-//Peacekeeping-//__ The establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) is one of the most important steps forward in International Law in the last decades. The Court provides the international community with an instrument to defend human rights and pursue justice, for specified crimes that otherwise would be committed with impunity. The action of the ICC is an important step in the process of building reconciliation within and among nations and communities. //__- UN-ICC Relationship:__// The ICC must maintain a strong relationship with the UN, though they are not considered a branch of the UN. This cooperation between the United Nations and the International Criminal Court is under a Relationship Agreement. The partnership and support to the Court has progressively evolved and expanded. -communicate with the UN and try accused persons in matters referred to it by the UN in situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court's jurisdiction. **-** Work alongside NGOs as they help the ICC through advocacy and championing for the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes against humanity. - Cater for the rights of the victims and get them to present their views and observations before the Court. || The [|Presidency] is responsible for the overall administration of the Court, with the exception of the Office of the Prosecutor, and for specific functions assigned to the Presidency in accordance with the Statute. The Presidency is composed of three judges of the Court, elected to the Presidency by their fellow judges, for a term of three years. The President of the Court is Judge [|Sang-Hyun Song] (Republic of Korea). Judge [|Fatoumata Dembele Diarra] (Mali) is First Vice-President, and Judge [|Hans-Peter Kaul] (Germany) is Second Vice-President. Two judges must agree for a conviction - The ICC’s other prime administrative body is the Registry, which is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration of court. -The office of the Prosecutor is responsible for receiving referrals and any substantiated information on crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court, for examining them and for conducting investigations and prosecutions before the Court. The Office is headed by the Prosecutor, Luis Moreno-Ocampo ( Argentina ), who was elected by the States Parties for a term of nine years. He can issues indictments and arrest warrants for offending leaders. -The Court depends on the willingness of other states to pressure the non-compliant state, the cost and damage to non-compliant states’ reputation and the willingness of the Security Council to exercise coercive diplomacy. A number of mechanisms exist within the ICC and under the Rome Statute to provide assistance to victims of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. //__- The Trial and Appeals Chambers__// Once charges have been confirmed by the Pre-Trial Chamber, cases are heard by the Trial Chamber, made up of three judges. At this stage the accused is still presumed innocent and has the right to defend himself or herself or to choose counsel. The Appeals Chamber can hear appeals from both the Pre-Trial and Trial chambers. Made up of five judges, the Appeals Chamber has the power to overturn all kinds of lower level decisions, including reparations orders. - **__<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';">Other Offices __** The Court also includes a number of semi-autonomous offices such as the [|Office of Public Counsel for victims] and the [|Office of Public Counsel for Defence]. These Offices fall under the Registry for administrative purposes but otherwise function as wholly independent offices. The Assembly of States Parties has also established a Trust Fund for the benefit of victims of crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court and the families of these victims - Membership As of 2012, there are 120 state parties to the Statute of the Court. 18 Judges are allocated according to 5 UN regional groups || - The case against Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, a former rebel leader of the DRC, includes him being charged with conscripting child soldiers during the 2002-03 conflict in the DRC. Judgement in this case is expected on March 14, 2012. //__- The Democratic Republic of Congo__// One of the first country situations referred to the Court was that of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), when in April 2004 the DRC government requested that the prosecutor commence an investigation. Since then, two field offices have been opened in the DRC, four arrest warrants have been issued and three accused await trial in jail in The Hague. The trial that has advanced the furthest of any thus far is that of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, leader of the Union of Congolese. The verdict is set to be heard next month. - //__Uganda__// In December 2003, the government of Uganda requested that the prosecutor open an investigation into the situation in northern Uganda. Since then a field office has been established and five arrest warrants have been issued against senior leaders of the Lord’s Resistance Army, including Joseph Kony. Peace negotiations are ongoing between the government of Uganda and Joseph Kony. //- __Central African Republic__// The government of the Central African Republic also requested that the prosecutor open an investigation into the situation within its borders. The prosecutor commenced his investigation in May 2007 and established a field office in 2008 to provide logistical support for his operations, including witness protection. An arrest warrant for Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo was issued in May 2008, and he is in a jail in The Hague, waiting trial. - //__Sudan (Darfur)__// Sudan is the only country under investigation so far that has not requested intervention. In March 2005, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1593, referring the situation in Darfur to the ICC. The prosecutor accordingly opened an investigation in June 2005, and arrest warrants were issued for Ahmad Harun (former Sudanese Minister of State for the Interior) and Ali Kushayb (a former militia leader) in April 2007 on multiple counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity. **__-__** [|**Republic of Kenya**] On 31 March 2010, Pre-Trial Chamber II granted the Prosecutor’s request to open an investigation //<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';">proprio motu // in the situation in Kenya, State Party since 2005. Following summonses to appear issued on 8 March 2011, six Kenyan citizens voluntarily appeared before Pre-Trial Chamber II on 7 and 8 April 2011. The confirmation of charges hearing in the case [|//The Prosecutor v. William Samoei Ruto, Henry Kiprono Kosgey and Joshua Arap Sang//] were held from 1 to 8 September 2011. The confirmation of charges hearing in the case [|//The Prosecutor v. Francis Kirimi Muthaura, Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and Mohammed Hussein Ali//] took place from 21 September to 5 October 2011 - [|**Libya**] //On 26 February 2011, the United Nations Security Council decided unanimously to refer the situation in Libya since 15 February 2011 to the ICC Prosecutor. On 3 March 2011, the ICC Prosecutor announced his decision to open an investigation in the situation in Libya, which was assigned by the Presidency to Pre-Trial Chamber I. On 27 June 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber I issued three warrants of arrest respectively for// [|//Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah Al-Senussi//] //for crimes against humanity (murder and persecution) allegedly committed across Libya from 15 until at least 28 February 2011, through the State apparatus and Security Forces. On 22 November 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber I formally terminated the case against Muammar Gaddafi due to his death. The two other suspects remain at large.// - [|**Côte d’Ivoire**] Côte d’Ivoire, which is not party to the Rome Statute, had [|accepted the jurisdiction] of the ICC on 18 April 2003; more recently, and on both 14 December 2010 and 3 May 2011, the Presidency of Côte d'Ivoire [|reconfirmed the country’s acceptance of this jurisdiction]. On 3 October 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber III granted the Prosecutor’s request for authorisation to open investigations //<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';">proprio motu // into the situation in Côte d’Ivoire with respect to alleged crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court, committed since 28 November 2010, as well as with regard to crimes that may be committed in the future in the context of this situation. On 23 November 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber III issued a warrant of arrest under seal in the case [|//The Prosecutor v. Laurent Gbagbo//] for four counts of crimes against humanity. The arrest warrant against Mr Gbagbo was unsealed on 30 November 2011, when the suspect was transferred to the ICC detention centre at The Hague, by the Ivorian authorities. On 5 December 2011, Pre-Trial Chamber III held an initial appearance hearing and set the date for the confirmation of charges hearing to start on 18 June 2012. || -Lack of support from the Security Council’s permanent 5 à Only France and the United Kingdom have signed and ratified the Statute. Russia has signed but not ratified, China has not signed and the US signed, and then unsigned the Statue. -No major Asian power has joined, nor intends to ratify, the Statute. -Lack of a clear strategic approach to cases -Lacks its own police force and generally must rely on the assistance and willingness of the governments in whose countries it is operating <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - States can choose not to comply with ICC demands. Therefore as there is no effective enforcement mechanism available to the ICC, the Court depends on the willingness of other states to pressure non-compliant states, compromising their effectiveness as a body to achieve its aims. <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - Many of the ‘world powers’ such as the United States, Russia and China, have not ratified the Statute, acting a deterrent to other states. <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - Lack of support of the court undermines its authority and effectiveness as a body. <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - Endangers soldiers because its existence will prevent them from acting when they should, for fear of potential prosecution. Those who express this opinion contend that if the prosecutor initiates proceedings without supervision by any national government, cases could be pursued without understanding the dilemmas that are faced by soldiers in armed conflict. <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - Many commentators have expressed their concern that the ICC may stand as an obstacle to reconciliation and the resolution of conflicts.( [|119] ) In the past, many countries, including South Africa, Chile and, to some extent, Great Britain in relation to Northern Ireland, have granted amnesties in order to end conflicts. The fear is that as the ICC becomes involved in ongoing or recent conflicts, wars will be fought longer, peace processes will be disrupted and leaders will be reluctant to relinquish power if facing indictment. <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - As the ICC matures, critical voices are mounting with respect to the expense and delay involved in ICC proceedings.([|128]) By early 2008, the ICC had cost the international community over $600 million([|129]) and had yet to be anywhere near its first conviction <span style="font-family: 'trebuchet ms','sans-serif';">- - One recent concern of some significance is the ICC prosecutor’s exclusive focus on sub-Saharan Africa. A number of critics have expressed serious reservations about this practice, and voice fear about bias and the perception that the ICC is yet another instrument of foreign intervention in a long history of Western/Northern interference in African affairs. Even if various geopolitical pressures have simply made it easier for the prosecutor to begin investigations in Africa rather than elsewhere, commentators contend that this sends a negative signal about how the ICC may continue to work, and they maintain that the ICC cannot investigate African crises alone - ||
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ** || The ICC aims to
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">ROLES ** || Try individuals accused of the most egregious crimes. For example, crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes.
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">MECHANISMS TO ACHIEVE AIMS ** || - **__<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif';">Presidency __**
 * //-//** //__Victim Assistance__//
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">EXAMPLES OF WORK ** || T he prosecutor now has formal investigations underway in Darfur, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), northern Uganda, Sudan, the Central African Republic (CAR) and the Republic of Kenya - targeting some of the world's worst atrocities in recent years. In 2011 the UN Security Council referred the situation in Libya to the Prosecutor. He has issued arrest warrants in each of these cases, and has suspects in custody in the DRC and CAR cases on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
 * **<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">CRITICISMS ** || -The ICC Prosecutor is dependent on the voluntary contribution of states: for funding, for intelligence and evidence, for the arrest of suspects, and for pressure on recalcitrant governments.